It was four in the afternoon. The monsoon rains of the last two weeks had stopped and its ominous clouds scattered as the afternoon sun burned through, casting a golden hue that would soon turn bright crimson like blood, later to darken as shadows lengthened and then disappeared.
The young general strode to the large balcony window of his white wooden mansion in Cavite el Viejo. From the receiving room where he planned battles, he walked to where he would see what was worth dying for.
His rayadillo, with its diagonal weave, was crisp and immaculate. Its brass buttons, long left unpolished in the field, and its miniature chevrons and medals were now gleaming. From his side, a saber hung. Though now sheathed, it was a deadly witness to too many wars won and lost.
From the balcony window, the young general faced the people gathered outside waving banners, swords and muskets. His gaze was first on the immediate, scanning each face for a glow that reflected an anticipation that tomorrow would be a new day.
And then towards a future that only the mind’s eye could see he looked beyond the fields that had been his family’s source of livelihood.
It was time. Emilio Aguinaldo soon gripped a pole with a magnificent silken tricolor banner at its other end. It was the first time that the colors were unfurled, not as a field banner as it had flown recently, but, as the flag of a sovereign republic.
The sacred cloth had earlier been a banner at the battle of Alapang. It was brought back from Hong Kong where it was sewn by Marcela de Agoncillo, Delfina Herbosa de Natividad, and Lorenza Agoncillo, Marcela’s daughter. From fine satin purchased along Powell Street and later sewn in a house on Morrison Hill in Hong Kong, the sewing had taken five short days.
Soon after, it quickly saw battle. Aguinaldo’s revolutionary army had repulsed the Spanish royal marines at Alapang. Along the bay’s shores, a typhoon drenched the province, blowing away remnant smoke from the burning Spanish garrison. But the cleansing had done more than that. Rainwater diluted colonial blood spilled along rock and dirt eventually forcing these into earth where it did not belong.
In the ensuing days, other Spanish forces were routed in Bataan, Cavite, Pampanga, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas and Bulacan. In the old walled city, the Spanish were trapped within ancient stones and by their decaying hubris. Soon only Manila and the port of Cavite remained under Spanish control.
As the crowd cheered, Aguinaldo waved the flag. A field of blue dotted with miniature white flowers stitched over a field of red. An immaculate white triangle. Three hand-drawn six-pointed golden stars that unified the islands into a nation. And a golden sunburst, the mythical sun with a human face with each resplendent ray for those first eight provinces that defied Spain.
His pulse rose and dampness came to his eyes. The young general had stood defiantly against older and larger men who did not treat him well, thinking his youth was a weakness.
But they were mistaken. Few, oppressed and vulnerable, ever defied an empire that ruled more than half of the world for centuries.
As the cheering reached a crescendo, solemnity ever so slowly took over as a declaration was read.
Aguinaldo’s highest adviser then was Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista. Reading the Act of the Declaration of Independence would be his last official duty. After today, a paralytic, from Batangas named Apolinario Mabini, would take his place.
Suddenly, the band outside played a stirring melody. At first it was rhythmic, pounding with pomp and pageantry. As it played, it turned grand and glorious. Drawing to a close, a crescendo rose and then fell as the melody invoked the songs of souls long gone.
The “Marcha Filipina Magdalo”, played by the band of San Francisco de Malabon, was a march composed by Julian Felipe, a composer from Cavite. It was written in just six days and completed on June 11, 1898. Felipe would later change the name to “Marcha Nacional Filipina”. One year later, on Aug. 1899, a young soldier named Jose Palma would compose a poem entitled “Filipinas”. Filipinas would later be used as the lyrics of the anthem providing eloquence to what had then stirred passions.
On the 12th day of the sixth month in 1898, a new nation was born. The most beautiful the world had ever seen. A sovereign nation named Filipinas. Our Filipinas.
Popularity: 4% [?]
A most inspired and inspiring recollection my friend!!! Sad to recall though that a casualty of the fight for freedom was Gat Andres Bonifacio who died not at the hands of the colonial masters but his own compatriots.
Very well written, stirring and alive. Here’s the facsimile of the original proclamation in Spanish, followed by a translation in English:
http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cache/a/a/b/aab1246.0001.001/00000203.tif100.gif
Sorry, only the first page can be displayed. Here’s the correct link. Please proceed to pages 185-206:
http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aab1246.0001.001
The demise of Luna, the most brilliant and capable of the Filipino generals, was a decisive factor in the fight against the American forces. Even the Americans developed an astonished admiration for him. One of them, General Hughes, said of his death, probably relishing the irony, “The Filipinos had only one general, and they have killed him.”
Subsequently, Aguinaldo suffered successive, disastrous losses in the field, retreating towards northern Luzon. In less than two years, he was captured in Palanan, Isabela by American forces, led by General Frederick Funston and their Kapampangan allies, the Macabebe mercenaries. Aguinaldo was later brought to Manila, and made to pledge allegiance to the United States
from Wikipedia
I agree with Ding, yours is stirring piece. As we enter another moment of hope in our history, it’s good to look back at one of the first such moments.
Word of honor and Aguinaldo do not really stay in the same room together for long. Less than 2 years before that rousing day of June 12, Aguinaldo had urged Filipino soldiers to lay down their arms as, for many pieces of mexican gold, he pledged allegiance to Spain. Then a couple of years later, again Aguinaldo urged Filipino soldiers to lay down their arms as Aguinaldo pledged allegiance to US of A. And forty-some years later, again Aguinaldo asked Filipino soldiers to pledge allegiance to Japan.
Pambihira naman talaga, medyo nakakarindi.
Word of honor and Emilio Aguinaldo do not really stay in the same room together for long. Less than 2 years before that rousing day of June 12, Aguinaldo had urged Filipino soldiers to lay down their arms as, for many pieces of mexican gold, he pledged allegiance to Spain. Then a couple of years later, Aguinaldo again urged Filipino soldiers to lay down their arms as Aguinaldo pledged allegiance to US of A. And forty-some years later, Aguinaldo asked asked Filipino soldiers to pledge allegiance to Japan.
Pambihira naman talaga, medyo nakakarindi.
Manong Ding,
In 2007, Ambeth Ocampo reflected:
Greg Bankoff also reflected in his “Selective Memory and Collective Forgetting: Historiography and the Philippine Centennial of 1898” this:
You may know the old scuttlebutt about how during the time our Commonwealth government was deciding who our nation hero should be, the Americans supposedly used moral suasion for Rizal to be picked over Bonifacio as Rizal the latter having a “wider” world view…
Uplifting rendition, capturing the all-too-brief blossoming of an independent state that was not allowed to be by less glamorous twists and turns of international game-players. I wish your view could overwhelm today’s apathy and relentless trade-of-favors and inspire a forward looking, well-reasoning nation where capability would be prized, and befitting the beauty of the land and its good people.
On the 12th day of the sixth month in 1898, a new nation was born. The most beautiful the world had ever seen. A sovereign nation named Filipinas. Our Filipinas.
————–
I have met many Filipinos who believe that the Philippines is the most beautiful nation that the world has ever seen.
I have a number of Thais who believe that Thailand is the most beautiful nation that the world has ever seen, and that Thai mangoes are superior to Philippine mangoes.
I have met a few Peruvians who believe that Peru is the most beautiful nation that the world has ever seen, and that Machu Picchu is one of those places that people should see before they die.
And of course, there are Canadians who ask where are the most beautiful places of the Philippines; Danes who ask where are the most beautiful places of the Philippines; and Australians with their funny English.
The story of Dean de la Paz is somewhat melodramatic. A young General who usurped power from the original initiator of the Philippine Revolution had put himself in Philippine History. I prefer The Cebuano Warrior: Lapu Lapu as the true Hero. Since he repulsed and killed the Spanish invader. And, he did not do anything against his fellow Filipinos.
The History of the Philippines parallels like the History of Mexico. Both are complicated, with usurpers of who put themselves to the forefront of History. If there was no Andres Bonifacio, there would be no Emilio Aguinaldo. I have a great great grandfather who fought also in the Philippine Spanish War of Independence. He was as hardheaded as me, I think. As always, History is written by the victors, not the vanquished.
Maybe you should read Alvarez’s “The Katipunan and the Revolution” to understand the role played by Bonifacio and Aguinaldo. If Aguinaldo was a bogus hero as you seem to insinuate why was he able to organize a Filipino government that administered the whole country at one point, supported by a 30,000 strong army, and held in high esteem by ordinary Filipinos in his time. Each had their own failings but definitely both shared a heroic place in history. Contrary to your belief, Lapu-Lapu is not a Filipino hero.
I agree that Lapu-Lapu could not be a Filipino hero because, during his time, there was no Philippines. We Filipinos are a creation of Spain.
I usually don’t agree with you but I have the same feeling on Aguinaldo who has allowed Andres Bonifacio to be executed. I have visited a museum once in Makati and I left feeling sadness on the betrayal by Aguinaldo who was a latecomer to Katipunan where Bonifacio contributed so much work. The execution team was headed by a Macapagal (history keeps repeating itself) Added to that Aguinald collaborated with the Japanese. The life and achievements of Bonifacio should be celebrated more.
I forgot, he also got rid of Gen. Antonio Luna who is another rising star in the organization.
Luna was a misfit in the Aguinaldo army. His temper did him away. Here is a story of how the battle of Bagbag in Calumpit Bulacan was lost because of Luna’s intransigence:
http://bibabawan.blogspot.com/2010/03/how-battle-of-bagbag-was-lost.html
Sorry I posted this on the wrong thread
“The demise of Luna, the most brilliant and capable of the Filipino generals, was a decisive factor in the fight against the American forces. Even the Americans developed an astonished admiration for him. One of them, General Hughes, said of his death, probably relishing the irony, “The Filipinos had only one general, and they have killed him.”
Subsequently, Aguinaldo suffered successive, disastrous losses in the field, retreating towards northern Luzon. In less than two years, he was captured in Palanan, Isabela by American forces, led by General Frederick Funston and their Kapampangan allies, the Macabebe mercenaries. Aguinaldo was later brought to Manila, and made to pledge allegiance to the United States”
from Wikipedia on General Antonio Luna
I think Bonifacio’s achievements pale against Aguinaldo’s. Yes, Bonifacio organized the Katipunan but he was an incompetent leader with almost zero military instinct. He forgot to give out the signal on night of August 29, 1896 to alert Cavite and neighboring towns to commence the revolution. After being routed at the battle of San Juan where his men were nearly wiped out, he also forgot that he was supposed to rendezvous with the forces of his appointee, General Ramon Bernardo, for the planned attack on Manila the following day, which also resulted in heavy losses. Apart from these two battles, Bonifacio did not figure in any other campaign up to his death in May 10, 1897, except those conducted outside of Manila, and in coordination with the Cavite Katipunan councils which were sucessfully led by Alvarez and Aguinaldo. On the other hand, Aguinaldo eventually took over the leadership of the Magdiwang and Magdalo councils of Cavite, unified the rest of the katipunan in other parts of the country into a formalized revolutionary government, and completed the first phase of the Philippine revolution with the pact of Biak-na-bato in December 1897. Aguinaldo again took the leadership and unified the remnants of the revolution in waging the second phase until the establishment of the first Philippine Republic in September 1898, and the war against the United States, until his capture in March 23, 1901. Knowing the background of the American involvement in Philippine-Spanish war explain the reason why Aguinaldo and Ricarte collaborated with the Japanese during WWII.
Actually, there were unheralded generals who had more credible achievements than Luna. General Licerio Geronimo, who fought Bonifacio’s battle of San Juan, commanding the Morong Brigade defeated the forces of U.S. General Henry Lawton in the battle of San Mateo in September 13, 1900 where General Lawton himself was killed. General Juan Cailles routed the attacking American troops in the battle of Mabitac Laguna in September 17, 1900. Considering that the Filipino Army was up against rapid-firing guns, breech-loading batteries and mountain guns(Filipinos were using muzzle-loading cannons captured from the Spaniards), cavalry and supported by the big guns from Admiral Dewey’s battleships, there was no way Aguinaldo could have succeeded in defeating the powerful American army. Aguinaldo’s strategy was to tire out the Americans that they might decide to leave the Filipinos alone, thus, the three-year bloody guerrilla warfare that followed which was initially successful until water-boarding, tortue, indiscriminate killings, devastation and reconcentrado were used that broke the backbone of the resistance.
Love of Country translated work of Andres Bonifacio which is considered one of the best works in katipunan literature. The sentiments here are timeless and even resonates to the present
Love of Country
1.
What love can be
purer and greater
than love of country?
What love? No other love, none.
1.
Is there any love that is nobler
Purer and more sublime
Than the love of the native country?
What love is? Certainly none.
2.
Even when the mind repeatedly reads
and try to understand
the history that is written and printed
by humanity, this (love of country) can be seen.
2.
Though the mind may not cease reflecting
And sifting with perseverance
What humanity has printed and written:
That will be the result, none other.
3.
Holy love! when born
of a pure heart,
the humble and the backwoodsman, the poor, the unlettered
become great and respected.
3.
Sacred love! when thou reignest
In a loyal heart, be it even
A plebeian’s, a rustic’s untutored
Thou makest it grand and revered.
4.
Love of country
is always the desire of a man with honor;
In songs, in poetry, in his writings
the greatness of the country is always the theme.
4.
To give the fatherland boundless honor
Is the purpose of all who are worthy
And who sing, or compose, or make verses
To spread their country’s glory.
5.
Nothing dear to a person with a pure heart
is denied to the country that gave him birth:
blood, wealth, knowledge, sacrifices,
E’en if life itself ends.
5.
There is nothing worth having the patriot
Will not give for his native land:
Blood and wealth, and knowledge and effort,
Even life, to be crushed and taken.
6.
Why? what is this that is so big
to which is dedicated with utmost devotion,
all that is dear
and to which life is sacrificed.
6.
Why? What thing of infinite greatness
Is this, that all knees should be bended
Before it? that it should be held higher
Than the things most precious, even life?
7.
Ah, this is the Mother country of one’s birth,
she is the mother on whom
the soft rays of the sun shine,
which gives strength to the weak body.
7.
Ah! the land it is that gave us birth,
Like a mother, and from her alone
Came the pleasant rays like the sun’s
That warmed the benumbed body.
8.
To her one owes the first kiss
of the wind that is the balm
of the oppressed heart drowning
in the deep well of misfortune and suffering.
8.
To her we owe the first breath
That enlivened the breast oppressed
And smothered in the abyss
Of pain and grievous suffering.
9.
Entwined with this is love of country,
everything that is dear to the memory,
from the happy and careless childhood
to the hour of death.
9.
With the love of country are coupled
All dreams and all ideals,
From joyful, restless childhood
Till the grave receives the body.
10.
The bygone days of joy,
the future that is hoped
will free the slaves,
where can this be found but in one’s native land?
10.
The times gone-by of gladness
And the day to come that we sigh for
When the yoke shall be taken from us:
What are they but dreams of the patriot?
11.
Every tree and branch
of her fields and forest joyful to behold,
’tis enough to see them to remember
the mother, the loved one, and the happiness now gone.
11.
And every tree and branchlet
Of its woods and its laughing meadows,
Bring back to the mind the memory
Of the mother and past days of gladness.
12.
Her clear waters —
they come from the mountain springs,
the soft whisper of the rushing wavelets
enlivens the sorrowing heart.
12.
Its crystalline cooling waters
That flow from the springs in the mountains,
The soft murmur of swift current
Are balm to the heart that is drooping.
13.
How unfortunate to be separated from the country!
Even memory is in sorrow’s embrace,
nothing is desired
but to see the country of one’s birth.
13.
Unhappy the exile from his country!
His mind, full of sad recollections,
Is haunted by anxious longing
For the land where stood his cradle.
14
This fourteenth stanza is omitted in Agoncillo’s translation, perhaps due simply to a printing or publishing error.
14.
Misfortune and death seem lighter
When we suffer them for our country,
And the more that for it we suffer,
The more our love grows – oh, marvel!
15.
If this country is in danger
and she needs defending,
Forsaken are the children,
the wife, the parents, the brothers and sisters
at the country’s beck and call.
15.
If our land with danger is threatened
And help must be quickly forthcoming,
Children, wife, and parents and brothers
At her first call we must abandon.
16.
And if our land, Filipinas,
is offended and her honor, reason, and dignity outraged,
by a traitorous foreign country;
16.
And if our land, Filipinas,
Is offended, and outraged her honor
And her dignity into the mire
Is dragged by the foreign impostor:
17.
What unhappiness and grief
will invade the heart of the Filipino?
And will not even the most peaceful
Rise to avenge her honor?
17.
Will by boundless grief not invaded
Be the heart of the Filipino?
And will not the most peaceful even
Rise to avenge her honor?
18.
Where will the strength
to take revenge and to throw away life come,
if none can be relied upon for help,
but those suffering from slavery?
18.
And whence will it come, the vengeance,
The sacrifice of our life blood,
If at the end of the struggle,
We shall fall into cruel bondage?
19.
If his suffering and slavery
are in the mire of deceit and oppression,
one holds the whip, the chains that bind,
and only tears are allowed to roll down.
19.
If to her fall and prostration
Into the mire of fraud and derision
Will be added the lash and the shackles,
Naught being left her but mourning?
20.
Who is there to whom her condition
Will not fill the soul with sorrow?
Will the heart most hardened by treachery
Not be moved to give her its life blood?
20.
Who is there whom her condition
Will not fill the soul with sorrow?
Will the heart most hardened by treachery
Not be moved to give her its life blood?
21.
Will not, perchance, her sorrow
Drive the Filipinos to come to the rescue
of the mother in agony, trampled
underfoot by the mean Spaniards?
21.
Will not, perchance, her sorrow
Drive the Filipinos to come to the rescue
Of the mother in agony, trampled
Underfoot by the foe disgusting?
22.
Where is the honor of the Filipino?
where is the blood that should be shed?
The country is being oppressed, why not make a move,
you are shocked witnessing this.
22.
Where is Filipino honor?
Where the blood that must be set flowing?
Their country in peril – why passive?
Will they calmly see her suffer?
23.
Go, you who have lived
in the full hope of comfort,
and who reaped nothing but bitterness,
Go and love the oppressed country.
23.
Come ye, who have been living
Of future felicity dreaming,
And have tasted naught but sorrow,
Come, love your unhappy country.
24.
You who, from the stream of your breast,
have lost the holy desire to sacrifice,
Once more let true love flow,
express that love for the imprisoned country.
24.
Ye, in whom the struggling desire
Has dried the springs of the bosom,
May true love again be born in you
And flow for your suffering country.
25.
You from whom the fruit and flowers
of your life have been plucked
by intrigues and incomparable sufferings,
once more freshen up and love thy country.
25.
Ye, who have lost the fruit and the flower
Of the trees of this life, withered early
By so many perplexing sorrows,
Revive and succor your country.
26.
You, so many hearts that… [???]
of cheating and oppression of the mean in actions,
now rise up and save the country,
snatch it from the claws of the tyrant.
26.
Ye, who are propitious victims
Of deceit and bestial rigor,
Arise now to save your country,
Free her from the claws of the traitor!
27.
You who are poor without… [???]
except to live in poverty and suffering,
protect the country if your desire is to end
your sufferings, for her progress is for all.
27.
Ye, wretches, who nothing demanded
But to live ‘midst sorrows and torments,
Strike a blow to save your country,
Since she is our common mother.
28.
Dedicate with all your love —
as long there is blood — shed every drop of it,
If for the defense of the country life is… [???]
this is fate and true glory.
28.
Unto her in holocaust loving
The last drop of your blood you must offer,
If to free her your life you have given,
Yours is glory then and redemption.
Here’s the original Tagalog version, from Jose P. Santos monograph, “Si Andres Bonifacio at ang Himagsikan”, 1935:
PAGIBIG SA TINUBUANG BAYAN
Alin pagibig pa ang hihigit kaya
sa pagka dalisay at pagkadakila
gaya ng pag ibig sa tinubuang lupa?
alin pag ibig pa? wala na nga, wala.
Ulitulitin mang basahin ng isip
at isa isahing talastasing pilit
ang salitat buhay na limbag at titik
ng sang katauhan itoy namamasid.
Banal na pag ibig! pag ikaw ang nukal
sa tapat na puso ng sino’t alin man
imbit taong gubat maralitat mangmang
naguiguing dakila at iguinagalang.
Pagpupuring lubos ang palaguing hangad
sa bayan ng taong may dangal na ingat
Umawit tumula kumathat sumulat
kalakhan din nia’y isinisiwalat.
Walang mahalagang hindi inihandog
ng may pusong mahal sa Bayang nagkupkup
dugo yaman dunong katiisat pagod
buhay may abuting magkalagot lagot.
Bakit? alin ito na sakdal ng laki
na hinahandugan ng boong pag kasi
na sa lalung mahal na kapangyayari
at guinugugulan ng buhay na iwi.
Ay! itoy ang Ynang bayang tinubuan
siya’y inat tangi na kinamulatan
ng kawiliwiling liwanag ng araw
na nagbigay init sa lunong katawan.
Sa kania’y utang ang unang pagtangap
ng simuy ng hanging nagbibigay lunas
sa inis na puso na sisingapsingap
sa balong malalim ng siphayo’t hirap.
Kalakip din nitoy pag ibig sa Bayan
ang lahat ng lalung sa gunitay mahal
mula sa masaya ‘t gasong kasangulan
hangang sa kataway mapa sa libingan.
Ang nanga karaang panahun ng aliw
ang inaasahang araw na darating
ng pagkatimawa ng mga alipin
liban pa sa bayan saan tatanghalin?
At ang balang kahuy at ang balang sanga,
ng parang nia’t gubat na kaayaya
sukat ang makitat sa sa ala ala
ang inat ang guiliw lumipas na saya.
Tubig niyang malinaw na anaki’y bubog
bukal sa batisang nagkalat na bundok
malambut na huni ng matuling agos
na nakaaaliw sa pusong may lungkot.
Sa aba ng abang mawalay sa Bayan!
gunita may laguing sakbibi ng lumbay
walang alaalat inaasam asam
kung di ang makita’y lupang tinubuan.
Pati ng magdusat sampung kamatayan
wari ay masarap kung dahil sa Bayan
at lalung maghirap oh himalang bagay
lalung pag irog pa ang sa kaniay alay.
Kung ang bayang ito’y nasasa panganib
at sia ay dapat na ipagtangkilik
ang anak, asawa, magulaing kapatid
isang tawag niay tatalikdang pilit.
Dapuat kung ang bayan ng katagalugan
ay linalapastangan at niyuyurakan.
katuiran. puri niyat kamahalan
ng sarna ng lilong taga ibangbayan.
Di gaano kaya ang paghihinagpis
ng pusong tagalog sa puring nalait?
at alin kalooban na lalong tahimik
ang di pupukawin sa, panghihimagsik?
Saan magbubuhat ang paghihinay(?)
sa paghihigantit gumugol ng buhay
kung wala ding iba na kasasadlakan
kung di ang lugami sa kaalipinan?
Kung ang pagka baun niyat pagka busabos
sa lusak ng dayat tunay na pag ayop
supil ang pang hampas tanikalang gapos
at luha na lamang ang pinaaagos.
Sa kaniang anyo’y sino ang tutunghay
na di aakain sa gawang mag damdam
pusong naglilipak sa pagkasukaban
ang hindi gumugol ng dugo at buhay.
Mangyayari kaya na itoy malangap
ng mga tagalog at hindi lumingap
sa naghihingalong Ynang na sa yapak
na kasuklamsuklam sa kastilang hamak.
Nasaan ang dangal ng mga tagalog
nasaan ang dugung dapat na ibuhos?
baya’y inaapi bakit di kumilos?
at natitilihang itoy mapanood.
Hayo na nga kayo, kayong nanga buhay
sa pagasang lubos ng kaguinhawahan
at walang tinamo kundi kapaitan
hayo nat ibiguin ang naabang bayan.
Kayong natuyan na sa kapapasakit
ng dakilang hangad sa batis ng dibdib
muling pabalungit tunay na’ pag ibig
kusang ibulalas sa bayang piniit.
Kayong nalagasan ng bungat bulaklak
kahuy niaring buhay na nilantat sukat
ng balabalakit makapal na hirap
muling manariwat sa baya’y lumiyag.
Kayong mga pusong kusang (???)
ng daya, at bagsik ng ganid na asal
ngayon ay magbangu’t baya’y itangkakal
agawin sa kuko ng mga sukaban.
Kayong mga dukhang walang tanging (????)
kundi ang mabuhay sa dalitat hirap
ampunin ang bayan kung nasa ay lunas
pagkat ang guinhawa niya ay sa lahat.
Ypahandog handog ang boong pag ibig
hangang sa may dugo’y ubusing itiguis
kung sa pagtatangol buhay ay (???)
itoy kapalaran at tunay na langit.
Correction: September 13, 1900 is incorrectly assigned as the date of the battle of San Mateo where American General Lawton was killed by Filipno forces. The correct date is December 19, 1899. The date of September 13, 1900 is the date when a company of American soldiers led by Captain Devereux was ambushed and routed by Filipino soldiers led by Colonel Maximo Abad at Pulang Lupa, Torrijos, Marinduque. The same officer, Col. Abad, figured prominently in the battle of San Mateo. Sorry for the mistatement.
The quest and the road to freedom is littered with landmines of betrayal.
Homegrown tyrants replaced the conquistadores from Catalonia and Iberia. Not least of which is the traitor with a mole named Gloria.
We were people from these islands before the Spaniards came. Whatever name was named on us. We were a people, with governments. How did Lapu Lapu organized a resistance, if there were no existing goverment then? You mean to say, Lapu Lapu was a one army?
It is the tactic of the Spanish invaders to erase the name, cultures, and revise the mindsets of those they invade. Look at what they had done with the Incas of Peru, the Aztecs of Mexico, etc… After taking their golds and silvers by desecrating their Temples. They made these people forget their Histories. These were great people, before the Spaniards came. They have a great civilizations. Look at those massive pyramids in Mexico, built by the Aztecs. They also have their own writings, languages and were known as expert Astronomers.
We were great people, before the Spaniards came. Just look at the Banawe Rice Terreces, in Ifugao. They were built by our ancestors. They also traded with China, before the Spanish occupation. They have the Bayahihan Spirit.
Sad to say: you still have that colonial mentality viruses in your mindset. Time to discover, who we really are, by looking our pre-hispanic past.
Here we go again.
All this time, I have always thought that Lapu-Lapu was a fishermen, damn…!
wrong, mario. lapu-lapu was a fish, still is, :>).
mario… that’s what happens when you have too much Ayn Rand and a lot less Gregorio Zaide, heh heh heh.
Mike H,
Ayn Rand was a great novelist, and a philosopher.
Also, I am getting re-educated, historically by you FV’ers.
Gregorio Zaide sounds like a good read. I was searching Borders Bookstore at our place, but to my in vain, zilch, nada.
Those will not help you, mario, re: “Time to discover, who we really are, by looking our pre-hispanic past.”, by Mario Cruz. You should research more on our pre-hispanic past, or, on Philippine coral reef inhabitants, heheh.
Bert,
LMAO, hehehehehe…!
Our ancestors were indeed a great people. By the 1600′s, there were only 70,000 of them scattered in this archipelago but they were able to build rice terraces, trade over long distances, kill Magellan etc. etc.. However, before the Spanish arrived, they were separate peoples. It could have turned out differently. For example, if Legaspi hadn’t arrived and if China did not turn isolationist, Mindanao could have been part of what would eventually become Indonesia and Luzon could have become part of China. As it turned out, it was Spain that united us, eventually against them. Yes, we should study the pre-Hispanic inhabitants to find out more about our origins but no need to imagine them being ‘Filipinos’. To acknowledge that we are a young people who started to discover our identity during the Cavite Mutiny of 1872 is more realistic, and puts things in better perspective.
The Cavite Mutiny and the opening of the Suez Canal brought many young men who came from all parts of the islands who wanted to study abroad or escape persecution and later constituted the core of the propaganda movement in Spain, and referred to themselves, not as Tagalogs, Bulakenos or Pampangos, or Visayans, but as “Filipinos”. And it was during the propaganda period of the late 19th century that the term “Filipino” was used to refer to those who were previously called “indios”, a usage that became more pronounced after Rizal came home in 1892 to organize the La Liga Filipina. Actually, it was Bonifacio and Jacinto who held on to the term “Katagulagan” in referring to the Filipino nation.
Oops, dropped a zero again. There were 700,000 inhabitants (not 70,000 as i mentioned above) by the 1600s, which is unusually small (given the area occupied) compared to the other civilizations (China, India) that existed side by side at that time.
Hey… why surrender Mindanao to Indonesia in your imagination? Why not the other way around?
Pinas ancestors should have been just as capable of LUZ-VI-MINDA-KA at least in the imagination. Pinas ancestors with greatness which results in not only Sabah but Brunei Darusalam, in fact the whole island of Borneo/Kalimantan would now be 80% Christian and would be part of the Pilipinas.
And where Taiwan is Pilipinas, as well as the Spratlys.
If we’re going to imagine greatness, let’s not imagine surrender.
Mike H, you are free to imagine any alternative history (e.g. an Ilocano becoming Emperor of China or Java being a protectorate of the Sultanate of Sulu), but my point is that it would not have been the Philippines and they would not have been Filipinos.
There were no writings of History of the Philippines, that survived before the Spanish occupation. Check your Filipino Anthropologists. There were Filipino writings and alphabets, before the Spaniards came. However, they were destroyed and forgotten. This is how the colonizer did to the Aztecs and Incas. Only, a few of their writings survived as “stellas” embosed on their ruined Temples. Unluckily, we did not have any Temples to write and embose our history. We were Animists, before we became Muslims and Christians. To claim accurate knowledge of our pre-Hispanic history, which was mostly written by the Spanish Colonialist is grosssly inaccurate. To be of the opinion, that we would be this part of any country is just your presumption. Maybe a figment of your wild immagination. We cannot rationaly debate anything about this matter. Becuase, we were all not yet born. Only, if you believe in reincarnation. If you a certain that, you may had lived in the pre-Hispanic time of our country. That I may somewhat think some truth about your claim.
These pre-Hispanic writings belonged to groups that eventually became part of the Filipino people (e.g. Tagalog, Kapampangan, Ilocano, Cebuano etc.) but they were not yet Filipinos then. The reason they came together is because of conquest by Spain and, in the case of Muslim Mindanao, conquest by the USA.
Maybe this will make what i’m saying more clear:
…the Tagalogs, Kapampangans, Ilocanos, Cebuanos, Bicolanos, etc. were not ‘Filipinos’ before the Spaniards arrived …
….in the same way that the Aztecs and Mayans were not ‘Mexicans’ before the Spaniards arrived.
Here are suggested reference materials on pre-Spanish Philippines:
(1) Pre-Spanish Philippines by Austin Craig, 1914
http://name.umdl.umich.edu/AKK1188.0001.001
(2) The Discovery and Conquest of the Philippines by Martin Noone, Philippine Historical Conservation Society, 1984
http://name.umdl.umich.edu/adn6882.0001.001
Bert,
LMAO, hehehehehe…!
Ooops!
Wrong threads.
Manong Dean,
Awe inspiring. To grasp our nature, to become independent, and proclaimed ourselves, Filipinas.
Dean how do you transition from shallow pop nationalism to a collective consciousness that the natives of these islands do have a country of their own?
“Filipinos” are a cultural construct of colonizers, both politically and economically.
The predominant culture being dominated by an economic model of extraction of the islands resources and a colonial culture of entitlement over the islands subjects….
Manong Dean,
This revisitation of a seldom discussed aspect of our war for Independence is refreshing as it is thought provoking, as evidenced by the vigorous exchanges among the students of history in the room.
Am missing someone though. Jose Protacio Rizal and his martyrdom at the hands of the colonizers.
My own dad taught Rizal’s life, works and writings.
Might I posit this topic now and how the two heroes’ deaths contrasted but whose spilt blood both led to the birth of the first Republic in Asia.
Is the modern-day “Garcification” of Fernando Poe, Jr. somehow like the late 1800’s “Tironafication” of Andres Bonifacio as both were denied of governmental positions?
Could the title of this blog post be “Our Katagalugan” if only Andres Bonifacio wasn’t “betrayed” in the first place?
Preface to The Court-Martial of Andres Bonifacio
The Court-Martial of Andres Bonifacio : with prefatory notes
by Teodoro M. Kalaw, tr. by Paz Policarpio-Mendez:
Read from this link.
Andres Bonifacio Case Unclosed (Lihim ng 1897), a GMA News documentary:
Watch from this link.
Here’s an online copy of “The Court Martial of Andres Bonifacio”, by T.M. Kalaw:
http://name.umdl.umich.edu/ADL9481.0001.001
In 1992, on the 129th Bonifacio Anniversary, SC Associate Justice Abraham Sarmiento released a review of the brothers Bonifacio’s trial declaring them innocent of the crimes for which they were tried:
Separate video here. (at 0.47 sec mark)
Here is La Vida Lawyer’s 21st Century Lawyer Notes on the Bonifacio Trial. He later suggested:
Here is the “garcification” of Bonifacio during the Katipunan election of the officers of the reorganized revolutionary government at Tejeros, Cavite in March 25, 1897:
“The Supremo Bonifacio appointed Gen. Artemio Ricarte as secretary. Then with the help of Mr. Daniel Tirona, he distributed pieces of paper to serve as ballots. When the ballots had been collected and the votes were ready to be canvassed, Mr. Diego Mojica, the Magdiwang secretary of the treasury, warned the Supremo that many ballots distributed were already filled out and that the voters had not done this themselves. The Supremo ignored this remark. He proceeded with the business at hand as if nothing unusual had happened.” (page 85, “The Katipunan and the Revolution” by Santiago V. Alvarez, Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1992)
Happy June 12, 2010 Independence day!!!
And may June 12, 2012 Independence Day even be better with more to celebrate for Pinoys in Pinas!!!
Ambeth Ocampo writes:
“Garcification” to arroyo could be “Tironafication”* to Aguinaldo.
—–
*black prop instigator and possible involvement in the “first” election fraud?
Ambeth Ocampo also writes:
(Emphasis mine.)
Tirona and Ricarte…a bad mix???
The last quote was from:
The Katipunan And The Revolution: Memoirs Of A General : With The Original Tagalog Text
by Santiago V. Alvarez
(As also cited by macapili.)
Our Katagalugan’s First President
Andres Bonifacio – The First President part 1
Andres Bonifacio – The First President part 2
Andres Bonifacio – The First President part 3
Andres Bonifacio – The First President part 4
Some articles written by Ambeth Ocampo re: Andres Bonifacio…
Election fraud at the Tejeros Convention
05/11/2007
The execution of Bonifacio
05/15/2009
How to cope with a century of ‘dagdag-bawas’
05/06/2010
Wonderful discussion, especially for those of us new to the history. How nice to branch away from the election and get to the deeper reflections.
Joe,
Deeper reflections may also yield interesting insights on the three-year Philippine-American War which was officially declared on June 2, 1899 barely a year after Aguinaldo’s independence proclamation.
Tranquil,
actually, I’ve studied this, thanks to Macapili’s wonderful history, and my observations are noted, in the context of Dewy vs Aguinaldo, at: http://thesocietyofhonor.blogspot.com/p/you-may-fire-when-you-are-ready-gridley.html
Dewey . . . stupid keyboard . . . made in China . . .
Joe, just read your post, very enlightening.
Joe,
Here is Sen. Albert Beveridge’s stirring justification for the imperialist march in perfect rhythm with the enchanting cadence of “white man’s burden”.
MR. PRESIDENT, the times call for candor. The Philippines are ours forever, “territory belonging to the United States,” as the Constitution calls them. And just beyond the Philippines are China’s illimitable markets. We will not retreat from either. We will not repudiate our duty in the archipelago. We will not abandon our opportunity in the Orient. We will not renounce our part in the mission of our race, trustee, under God, of the civilization of the world. And we will move forward to our work, not howling out regrets like slaves whipped to their burdens but with gratitude for a task worthy of our strength and thanksgiving to Almighty God that He has marked us as His chosen people, henceforth to lead in the regeneration of the world.
This island empire is the last land left in all the oceans. If it should prove a mistake to abandon it, the blunder once made would be irretrievable. If it proves a mistake to hold it, the error can be corrected when we will. Every other progressive nation stands ready to relieve us.
But to hold it will be no mistake. Our largest trade henceforth must be with Asia. The Pacific is our ocean. More and more Europe will manufacture the most it needs, secure from its colonies the most it con-sumes. Where shall we turn for consumers of our surplus? Geography answers the question. China is our natural customer. She is nearer to us than to England, Germany, or Russia, the commercial powers of the present and the future. They have moved nearer to China by securing permanent bases on her borders. The Philippines give us a base at the door of all the East.
http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ajb72.htm
tranquil,
“. . . thanksgiving to Almighty God that He has marked us as His chosen people, henceforth to lead in the regeneration of the world.”
Whoa, is that over the top, or what?
Set aside Beveridge’s racial condescension and at least he got the strategic part right. The Philippines is a strategic diamond that still looks to many like mud. Even with some 60 years in charge of their own destiny, Filipinos have been unable to polish up the old rock properly.
Time to rise and shine . . .
Backward industry.
Next to insignificant manufactured goods.
90 million consumers of Procter & Gamble.
Where will we generate wealth to make everybody happy and not just those few rent-seeking bastards?
Industry. Science. Research.
These are the areas we should be harnessing our creative energies into.
This doctrine was called: “Manifest Destiny”, then, by the American expansionist Pres. Polk. He annexed half of the part of Mexico, and took Spanish Territories in America.
joe am,
Indeed it is. These FV’ers are really well informed, history buff at that. I am still trying to recount the days when I have attended Bonifacio Elementary School in Pasay City, during my younger days.
Too much sentimentalism for a fraud independence. We never won it, it was handed down to us. Our name is borrowed from a foreign, murderous,bigoted King. Our Flag copied from the Star and Stripes. We are a “nation” without a true identity. The claws of our foreign captors are still very much on our neck, no marks there, only unhealed wounds.
Dear Joe,
I just read your post Joe. Great and wonderful. Some years back I published a book entitled “Under a Canopy of Lace” where that episode was included. Yours is by far better like night is different from day.
Truly enlightening and refreshing.
Regards,
Dean
Dean,
Thanks for the reading and the kind words. You are more modest than you need to be, though, because I know you can spin words elegantly and with clout. Getting a book done requires an incredible amount of work, and I am not up to that task any longer. So I admire your diligence as well as your words.
I too much enjoy watching bamboo grow. So blogging my max . . .
Joe,
Love your blog!!!
Great article too Dean. It reminded me of the Phil. history and some impressions it left on me and spurred me to read more about our national heroes Bonifacio and Rizal and about the Spanish American War. One of the architects that left his mark in Phil. is Daniel Burnham. One of his descendants is here in Calgary and he was telling stories about his ancestor. Great post too Joe American.
Dear Rosa,
We had an exhibit in Manila on the works of Burnham. The material was great. Mostly dug up from the Metropolitan Museum. These are the kind of things that inspire and push me to reread our history.
Dean
After meeting this guy, I googled Daniel Burnham and I learned that he is one of the more famous architect at the turn of the twentieth century. I would have loved to have seen this exhibit. Going to museums is one of my favorite pasttimes and yes it is nice to revisit history since they are really educational and shows the human condition at its best and unfortunately at its worst sometimes.
Reports of gold in the mountains of Cordilleras spurred the interest of Spain to invade us. The same with the Americans who was the first foreign nation to fully invade the highlands of the Cordillera to push the mining operations in the territory starting by building the road up to Baguio in 1903 (Wikipedia). Daniel Burnham then became the architect and master planner of Baguio. History shows that the economic motivations and interests of foreigners have forever changed the course of our country. It still continues today with black gold and base and precious metals. Despite all these riches, a substantial number of Filipinos go to bed hungry. I hope that with the promise of a new administration, the Filipinos will start to see a change in their fortunes.
In the conquest of the Incas of Peru. The History writen by the Spanish Colonizers: was that the Conquistador Pizarro invaded Peru with only a company of Spanish soldiers. When American anthropologists went to excavate the sites of Battle between Pizzaro and the Incas. They found out the skulls of the Inca victims of the battle badly beaten and cracked by heavy objects. The Spanish soldiers were armed with swords in the battle. There were no signs of slashings on the bones of the victims. The Inca allied soldiers were armed with heavy stone clubs.
It was found out by local Peruvian historians. That Pizzaro used the enemy tribes of the dominant Inca Tribes to win the battle. Then, Pizzaro turned against his Inca allies to invade Peru. Then, the Spanish historians wrote that Pizarro won Peru with just a company of Spanish soldiers.
Same as in Aztec Mexico, the Conquistador Hernandez, married an Aztec Princess to help in the invasion of the Aztec Empire. The Aztecs fought among themselves. This lead to their downfall and the conquest of the whole Aztec Empire.
I think, they did the same tactic and strategy in the Philippines. With Sikatuna and Legaspi, on so called “blood compact”. We were deluded, we fought among ourselves. And, we were conquered. Don’t believe the histories that the Spanish colonialist had written. They were written for propaganda. It points out: “you were nothing, before the Spaniards came.” This is to justify their colonization. Just look at our pre-historic past. Our greatness as a people are there: see the Banawe Rice Terraces. They did not have this kind of food production in Spain.
I apologize for sounding like “Pilosopong Tasio”. But, the truth must come out. To discover back our true self. I still believe that Lapu-Lapu should be the hero, above Aguinaldo and Bonfacio. He won the battle and killed the invader Magellan.
Hernando Cortez is the Conquistador of the Aztecs. Not Hernandez. My mistake. To err is human, to forgive is divine…
Manong Ding,
In 2007, Ambeth Ocampo reflected:
Greg Bankoff also reflected in his “Selective Memory and Collective Forgetting: Historiography and the Philippine Centennial of 1898” this:
What is this selective amnesia on the life of Andres Bonifacio really all about?
In symbolic terms, why was Andres Bonifacio replaced on our previous 5-peso bill and not placed on the face of our present 5-peso coin and why was he relegated to the once 10-peso bill and now to our 10-peso coin (alongside Mabini at that!!!)?
Jesusa Bernardo has this to say in her piece:
http://jesusabernardo.newsvine.com/_news/2010/01/03/3710118-the-devaluation-of-a-hero-promotion-of-a-counter-hero-wheres-andres-bonifacio-in-the-p5-coin>The Devaluation of a Hero & Promotion of a Counter-Hero: Where’s Andres Bonifacio in the P5 Coin?
Bro,
There’s been that debate over Rizal being our US-backed national hero as opposed to Gat Andres having been “thumbed down.”
Quite true. But this is not about Bonifacio vs. Rizal (as national hero).
This is about remembering…recalling…
Dean’s post is an Aguinaldo recollection, my comments are about Bonifacio recollections.
Actually, I left comments here because of your earliest post. Aguinaldo’s “glorification” here (including some in the comments section) would come in second.
Part of your earliest post runs:
Sad indeed…for a fellow citizen of today may be left bereft of Bonifacio memory…
I believe that the Miguel Lopez de Legaspi monument in Luneta Park must be removed. Put instead the monument of Lapu-lapu.
In the South American countries, where the Spanish Conquistadores went to invade. They were successful.
It was only in our country, where they lost in their first Battle against those they attempted to conquer. And, their commander, Magellan was killed. We should be proud of this noble “Filipino” warrior.
Enough years have passed; Pinoys of Pinas have repeatedly affirmed the country choice — Rizal over Bonifacio or Lapulapu — for national hero.
Just like Pinoys of Pinas affirms bestowing hero-status upon Aguinaldo despite him having pledged loyalty to Spain, to USA, to Japan.
just a sharing:
“2. Lapu-Lapu: The “First Filipino” to Resist Spanish Colonization?
There is a dual blunder here carried out which has been thought in schools for so long a time, a sheer affront to scholarly values and ideals indeed. That Lapu-Lapu was the first to imbibe and invoke “Filipino nationalism” and as such the first Filipino to resist to death Spanish colonization as quoted by Noel F. de Jesus from Encyclopedia Britannica in his article “Sweet and Sour Lapulapu” published in Philippine Panorama Sunday dated April 17, 2005 which regarded him as “the first Filipino to defeat a Western conqueror” is an age-old established inconsistency, therefore an upheld idiotic mistake perpetrated by no less than Filipino historiography.
De Jesus argued that Lapu-Lapu could still be Filipino “by some form of jus soli (i.e. right of the soil) because the soil from which he sprung is part of what is now the Filipino nation.” He continued further, “When a country comes into being, all who reside in the country automatically become citizens of the country, unless they choose not to be citizens.” Even so, still Lapu-Lapu could not be Filipino because the term originally belonged exclusively to a people (i.e. insulares and peninsulares Spaniards) who were foreigners by jus sanguinis (i.e. right of blood) and who are no longer residents today of the soil, which Lapu-Lapu sprung.
Meanwhile, there are two weighty arguments that make this claim completely false, unrealistic and irrational: 1) That Filipino is indeed foreign to both Lapu-Lapu and Magellan’s vocabularies that time since the term had just been coined and have been existent only during the later part of the 19th century. 2) That Filipino is the “unintentional pet project” of Spanish colonization; had it not been for the accidental coming of the Spaniards in the archipelago, precisely there would be no Felipinas, and there would be no Filipino at all. Logically, how could Lapu-Lapu be a Filipino when in fact it was this “conversion into Filipino” (i.e. Spanish colonization) , which he abhorred that had spurred and steered his stance to fight these foreign invaders without the slightest trace of a second thought? Such instant response of Lapu-Lapu explains the fact that he had been always aware of the Europeans prowling the Southeast Asian territories and therefore had been expectant of their unsolicited presence to set foot in Mactan anytime to impose their hegemony, therefore that well-prepared resistance to rout and defeat these intruders at once.”
Please take note that lapu-lapu is a native born in mactan and Magellan is an invading foreigner from spain. And that is the only deference.
danilo,
Your dissertation is well written. So, if during the course of Lapu-Lapu’s entanglement with the Spaniards, and he was not a filipino by choice of descriptive image that we as filipino been labeling him today.
But to brand Lapu-Lapu as our first Hero. What, and who was he then?
Or, are we Filipinos descendent from Muslim, which they are from Islam and Arab nation.
dear mario,
my position, (i am no scholar nor historian)is that we came from our forebears who were no arabs. it’s that, arab missionaries who preached Islam starting 13th century or earlier, e.g. Ibn Batuta (he was Ahmad ibni Muhammad of Tanji in Muslim history) who once met and talked with Queen Ursula of Pangasinan (?), happened to marry native women, then they left or died here. But those Muslims who were the forefathers of the people who call themselves Bangsamoro were natives of this place who accepted Islam like those forebears of the IPs who chose not to be Islamized.
This so late, Pampanga has been proud of its native hero Tariq Solaiman ( I don’t know how he was related to Rajah Solaiman of Manila) who died fighting for his country and people.
…Queen Urduja i mean, not Queen Ursula. My apology.
Gentlemen,
Am now more proud of FV than other blogsites where my articles are published. In those others, waving the flag invites more divisiveness, even bastusan.
But lest I be misunderstood, the post is not about Aguinaldo who I use simply to relate events of that day and not on his conduct of the revolution or his treatment of Bonifacio. There is only one short paragraph on his character and it addresses what foreigners thought of him then.
It is the event, the flag, the anthem and the euphoria that I had wanted to focus on inside my word limit of 750 words. More importantly, the unity in that short moment within that day. The post is a response to what Nick said to me about wanting to bring out the Filpino in us and in those who’ve left for other lands.
Also perhaps, the unity we should have after emerging from a divisive incumbency and a polarizing electoral exercise.
Mabuhay ang FV as it now seems that few have forgotten our lineages and history.
Mabuhay ang FV,
Dean
this young general was also one of the first corrupt leaders of our God forsaken and corrupt politician infested country….and yet we idolize and praise this guy like he really fought to liberate the Philippines from the conquistadores….tsk tsk pinoy nga naman.
Aguinaldo maybe ambitious and ruthless but definitely he was not corrupt. If he were, the $400,000 paid by the Spaniards as settlement after the sigining of the pact of Biak-na-bato which was deposited in HSBC and Chartered Bank in Hongkong in the name of Aguinaldo would have vanished without trace as happened to the fertilizer scam and similar corruption. Instead, the 37 or so self-exiled leaders of the revolution in Hongkong lived on the interest and did not touch the principal, and every item of expense was subjected to Aguinaldo’s approval. Isabelo Artacho wanted a share of the money for his services as Secretary of the Interior during the revolution, and even filed a suit, but Aguinaldo refused to divide the money and explained that the money should be kept intact for use in renewing the revolution should the Spaniards fail to live up to their commitments in the treaty. The case was settled out of court with the payment of $5,000 to Artacho. However, upon his return to the Philippines, Aguinaldo had Artacho arrested and vanished into the interriors of Cavite. Ultimately, the money was used to purchase arms from China in pursuit of the second phase of the revolution, the first shipment 2,000 breech-loading rifles and 200,000 rounds of ammunition was made through the American Consul in Hongkong, Mr. Wildman. It is accurate to say that Aguinaldo did liberate the country, excepting the city of Manila, which was occupied by the Americans. He also administered the civil and political affairs of the country for a brief period until the detruction of the Malolos republic by the Americans. I think we already have enough confusion in our history, and making these kinds of statements about Aguinaldo being corrupt further adds to the distortions we have inherited.
So is it true or is it rumor? That instead of allowing himself to be thrown into a prisoner-of-war jail, Aguinaldo instead swore allegiance to Spain; swore allegiance to USA and also swore allegiance to Japan? Three times, pambihira talaga, ‘no?
I also thought that each time he did so, he also asked Filipino soldiers to lay down their arms and to cooperate with the conquerors.
One must understand the circumstances of the guerrilla warfare and the counterinsurgency measures adopted by the Americans to forgive General Malvar and the rest of the remnants of the resistance in surrendering to the Americans and similarly accept the wisdom of Aguinaldo’s decision to swear allegiance to the United States. It is too easy to condemn the act of surrender of Aguinaldo, but the kind of counterinsurgency warfare we see today is much too humane in comparison with how it was conducted in Aguinaldo’s time.
P.S., Aguinaldo did not swear allegiance to Spain or Japan. He had a peace pact signed with Spain and a voluntary exile to a place of his choosing. He collaborated with the Japanese just like Ricarte and the Laurels.